Advanced Search

Journal Navigation

Journal Home

Subscriptions

Archive

Contact Us

Table of Contents

CiteULike is a free service for managing and discovering scholarly references - click here to get started.

Sign In to gain access to subscriptions and/or personal tools.
Journal of Dental Research
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Right arrow Citing Articles via Scopus
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Henderson, B.
Right arrow Articles by Wilson, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Henderson, B.
Right arrow Articles by Wilson, M.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati   Add to Twitter  
What's this?

Commensal Communism and the Oral Cavity

B. Henderson

Cellular Microbiology Research Group, Division of Surgical Sciences, Eastman Dental Institute, University College London, 256 Gray's Inn Road, London WC1X 8LD, United Kingdom

M. Wilson

Cellular Microbiology Research Group, Division of Surgical Sciences, Eastman Dental Institute, University College London, 256 Gray's Inn Road, London WC1X 8LD, United Kingdom

The world we live in contains unimaginable numbers of bacteria, and these and other single-celled creatures represent the major diversity of life on our planet. During the last decade or so, the complexity and intimacy of the interactions which occur between bacteria and host eukaryotic cells during the of infection have begun to emerge. The study of such interactions is the subject of the new discipline of cellular microbiology. This intimacy of bacteria/host interactions creates a major paradox. The average human being is 90% bacteria in terms of cell numbers. These bacteria constitute the commensal or normal microflora and populate the mucosal surfaces of the oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract, and the surface of the skin. In bacterial infections, much of the pathology is due to the release of a range of bacterial components (e.g., modulins such as Hpopotysaccharide, peptidoglycan, DNA, molecular chaperones), which induce the synthesis of the local hormone-like molecules known as pro-inflammatory cytokines, However, such components must also be constantly released by the vast numbers of bacteria constituting the normal microflora and, as a consequence, our mucosae should constantly be in a state of inflammation. This is patently the case, and a hypothesis is forwarded to account for this ''commensal paradox", namely, that our commensal bacteria and mucosal surfaces exist in a state of bio-communism, forming a unified "tissue" in which interactions between bacteria and epithelia are finely balanced to ensure bacterial survival and prevent the induction of damaging inflammation. Evidence is emerging that bacteria can produce a variety of proteins which can inhibit the synthesis/release of inflammatory cytokines. The authors predict that such proteins are simply one part of an extensive signaling system which occurs between bacteria and epithelial cells at mucosal surfaces such as those found in the oral cavity.

Key Words: bacteria • cytokines • periodontal disease • modulins • cytokine networks

REFERENCES

  • Alcami A., Smith GL (1992). A soluble receptor for interleukin-1β encoded by vaccinia virus: a novel mechanism of virus modulation of the host response to infection. Cell 71:153-167.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Amann RI, Ludwig W., Schleifer KH (1995). Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiol Rev 59:143-169.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Beck J., Garcia R., Heiss G., Vokonas PS, Offenbacher S. (1996). Periodontal disease and cardiovascular disease. J Periodontol 67:1123-1137.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Bermudez LE, Petrofsky M., Shelton K. (1996). Epidermal growth factor-binding protein in Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a possible role in the mechanism of infection. Infect Immun 64:2917-2922.[Abstract]
  • Beuscher HU, Rodel F., Forsberg A., Rollinghoff M. (1995). Bacterial evasion of host immune defence: Yersinia enterocolitica encodes a suppressor factor for tumor necrosis factor alpha expression. Infect Immun 63:1270-1277.[Abstract]
  • Boman HG (1995). Peptide antibiotics and their role in innate immunity. Ann Rev Immunol 13:61-92.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Caron E., Gross A., Liautard J-P., Dornand J. (1996). Brucella species release a specific, proteasesensitive, inhibitor of TNF-{alpha} expression, active on human macrophage-like cells. J Immunol 156:2885-2893.[Abstract]
  • Chertov O., Michiel DF, Xu L., Wang JM, Murphy WJ, Longo DL, et al. (1996). Identification of defensin-1, defensin-2 and CAP37/azurocidin as T cell chemoattractant proteins released from interleukin-8-stimulated neutrophils. J Biol Chem 271:2935-2940.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Dalrymple SA, Slattery R., Aud DM, Krishna M., Lucian LA, Murray R. (1996). Interleukin-6 is required for a protective immune response to systemic Escherichia coli infection. Infect Immun 64:3231-3235.[Abstract]
  • Daser A., Mitchison H., Mitchison A., Muller B. (1996). Non-classical MHC genetics of immunological disease in man and mouse. The key role of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes. Cytokine 8:593-597.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Denis M., Campbell D., Gregg EO (1991). Interleukin-2 and granulocyte-macrophage colonystimulating factor stimulate growth of a virulent strain of Escherichia coli. Infect Immun 59:1853-1856.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Durack DT (1995). Prevention of infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med 332:38-44.[Free Full Text]
  • Eckmann L., Kagnoff MF, Fierer J. (1995). Intestinal epithelial cells as watchdogs for the natural immune system. Trends Microbiol 3:118-120.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Fletcher J., Reddi K., Poole S., Nair S., Henderson B., Tabona P., et al. (1997). Interactions between periodontopathogenic bacteria and cytokines. J Periodont Res 32:200-205.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Fletcher J., Nair S., Poole S., Henderson B., Wilson M. (1998). Cytokine degradation by biofilms of Porphyromonas gingivalis. Curr Microbiol 36:158-161.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Frieling JT, Mulder JA, Hendriks T., Curfs JH, van der Linden CJ, Sauerwein RW (1997). Differential induction of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in whole blood by bacteria: effects of antibiotic treatment. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41:1439-1443.[Abstract]
  • Fukuyama F. (1992). The end of history and the last man. London: Penguin Press.
  • Gallo RL, Ono M., Povsic T., Page C., Eriksson E., Klagsbrun M., et al. (1994). Syndecans, cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans, are induced by a proline-rich antimicrobial peptide from wounds. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:11035-11039.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Henderson B., Wilson M. (1995). Modulins: a new class of cytokine-inducing, pro-inflammatory bacterial virulence factor. Inflamm Res 44:187-197.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Henderson B., Wilson M. (1996). Homo bacteriens and a network of surprises. J Med Microbiol 45:393-394.[Free Full Text]
  • Henderson B., Poole S., Wilson M. (1996a). Bacterial modulins: a novel class of virulence factors which cause host tissue pathology by inducing cytokine synthesis. Microbiol Rev 60:316-341.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Henderson B., Poole S., Wilson M. (1996b). Microbial/host interactions: who controls the cytokine network? Immunopharmacology 35:1-21.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Henderson B., Nair SP, Coates AR (1996c). Review: molecular chaperones and disease. Inflamm Res 45:155-158.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Henderson B, Wilson M, Wren B (1997). Are bacterial exotoxins cytokine network regulators. Trends Microbiol 5:454-458. Henderson B, Poole S, Wilson M (1998a). Bacteria/cytokine interactions in health and disease. London: Portland Press, p. 375.
  • Henderson B., Seymour R., Wilson M. (1998b). The cytokine network in infectious diseases. J Immunol Immunopharmacol (in press).
  • Herzberg MC (1996). Platelet-streptococcal interactions in endocarditis. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 7:222-236.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Hoover DL, Friedlander AM, Rogers LC, Yoon I-K, Warren RL, Cross AS (1994). Anthrax edema toxin differentially regulates lipopolysaccharide-induced monocyte production of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 by increasing intracellular cyclic AMP. Infect Immun 62:4432-4439. Jakway P, DeFranco AL (1986). Pertussis toxin inhibition of B cell and macrophage responses to bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Science 234:743-746.
  • Kaprelyants AS, Kell DB (1996). Do bacteria need to communicate with each other for growth. Trends Microbiol 4:237-242. Kirby AC, Meghji S, Nair SP, White P, Reddi K, Nishihara T, et al. (1995). The potent-bone resorbing mediator of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans is homologous to the molecular chaperone groEL. J Clin Invest 96:1185-1194. Klapproth J-M, Donnenberg MS, Abraham JM, Mobley HL, James SP (1995). Products of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli inhibit lymphocyte activation and lymphokine production. Infect Immun 61:2248-2254.
  • Kornman KS, Crane A., Wang H-Y., diGiovine FS, Newman MG, Pirk FW, et al. (1997). The interleukin-1 genotype as a severity factor in adult periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 24:72-77.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Kuhn TS ( 1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Kurita-Ochiai T., Ochiai K. (1996). Immunosuppressive factor from Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans downregulates cytokine production. Infect Immun 64:50-54.[Abstract]
  • Leal-Berumen I., Snider DP, Barajas-Lopez C., Marshall JS (1996). Cholera toxin increases IL-6 synthesis and decreases TNF-{alpha} production by rat peritoneal mast cells. J Immunol 156:316-321.[Abstract]
  • Luo G., Niesel DW, Shaban RA, Grimm EA, Klimpel GR (1993). Tumor necrosis factor alpha binding to bacteria: evidence for a high affinity receptor and alterations in bacterial virulence properties. Infect Immun 61:830-835.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Matsui K. (1996). A purified protein from Salmonella typhimurium inhibits proliferation of murine splenic anti-CD3 antibody-activated T-lymphocytes. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 14:121-127.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • McGee DW, Elson CO, McGhee JR (1993). Enhancing effect of cholera toxin on interleukin-6 secretion by IEC-6 intestinal epithelial cells: mode of action and augmenting effect of inflammatory cytokines. Infect Immun 61:4637-4644.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Meghji S., White PA, Nair SP, Reddi K., Heron K., Henderson B., et al. (1997). Mycobacterium tuberculosis chaperonin 10 stimulates bone resorption: a potential contributory factor to Pott's disease. J Exp Med 186:1241-1246.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Mims CA, Dimmock NJ, Nash A., Stephen J. (1995). Mims' pathogenesis of infectious diseases. 4th ed. London: Academic Press.
  • Murphy CJ, Foster BA, Mannis MJ, Selsted ME, Reid TW ( 1993). Defensins are mitogenic for epithelial cells and fibroblasts. J Cell Physiol 155:408-413.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Pace NR ( 1997). A molecular view of microbial diversity and the biosphere. Science 276:734-740.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Porat R., Clark BD, Wolf SM, Dinarello CA (1991). Enhancement of growth of virulent strains of Escherichia coli by interleukin-1. Science 254:430-432.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Rabie G., Lally ET, Shenker BJ (1988). Immunosuppressive properties of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans leukotoxin. Infect Immun 56:122-127.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Ray CA, Black RA, Kronheim SR, Greenstreet TA, Sleath PR, Salvesen GS, et al. (1992). Viral inhibition of inflammation. Cowpox virus encodes an inhibitor of the interleukin-1β converting enzyme. Cell 69:597-604.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Reddi K., Nair SP, White PA, Hodges S., Tabona P., Meghji S., et al. (1996). Surface-associated material from the bacterium Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans contains a peptide which, in contrast to lipopolysaccharide, directly stimulates fibroblast interleukin6 gene transcription. Eur J Biochem 236:871-876.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Renz H., Gong J.-H, Schmidt A., Nain M., Gemsa D. (1988). Release of tumor necrosis factor-a from macrophages: enhancement and suppression are dose-dependently regulated by prostaglandin E2 and cyclic nucleotides. J Immunol 141:2388-2393.[Abstract]
  • Rietschel ET, Wagner H. (1996). Pathology of septic shock. Vienna, Austria: Springer.
  • Roberts DM, Sharp P., Alderson G., Collins M. (1996). Evolution of microbial life. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Press.
  • Russell JP, Diamond G., Tarver AP, Scanlin TF, Bevins CL (1996). Coordinate expression of two antibiotic genes in tracheal epithelial cells exposed to the inflammatory mediators lipopolysaccharide and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Infect Immun 64:1565-1568.[Abstract]
  • Sadlack B., Merz H., Schorle H., Schimpl A., Feller AC, Horak I. (1993). Ulcerative colitis-like disease in mice with a disrupted interleukin-2 gene. Cell 75:253-261.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Schonwetter BS, Stolzenberg ED, Zasloff MA (1995). Epithelial antibiotics induced at sites of inflammation. Science 267:1645-1648.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Shenker BJ, Vitale LA, Welham DA (1990). Immune suppression induced by Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans: effects on immunoglobulin production by human B cells. Infect Immun 58:3856-3862.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  • Smith GL (1994). Virus strategies for the evasion of the host response to infection. Trends Microbiol 2:81-88.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Sparwasser T., Miethke T., Lipford G., Borscher K., Haecker H., Heeg K., et al. (1997). Bacterial DNA causes septic shock. Nature 386:336-337.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Tabona P., Reddi K., Nair SP, Crean SJ, Poole S., Preuss M., et al. Homogeneous Escherichia coli chaperonin 60 induces IL-1β and IL-6 gene expression by a mechanism independent of protein conformation. J Immunol 161:1414-1421.
  • Takahashi A., Earnshaw W. (1996). ICE-related proteases in apoptosis. Curr Opin Gen Dev 6:50-55.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Tannock GW (1995). Normal microflora: an introduction to
  • Territo MC, Ganz T., Selsted ME, Lehrer R. (1989). Monocyte chemotactic activity of defensins from human neutrophils. J Clin Invest 84:2017-2020.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • van Eden W., Young DB (1996). Stress proteins in medicine. New York: Marcel Dekker.
  • Verbanac D., Zanetti M., Romeo D. (1993). Chemotactic and protease-inhibiting activities of antibiotic peptides precursors. FEBS Lett 317:255-258.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Wilson M., Henderson B. (1995). Virulence factors of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans relevant to the pathogenesis of inflammatory periodontal diseases. FEMS Microbiol Rev
  • 17:365-379.
  • Wilson M., Reddi K., Henderson B. (1996). Cytokine-inducing components of periodontopathogenic bacteria. J Periodont Res 31:393-407.[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
  • Zhang Y, Lin JX, Vilcek J (1988). Synthesis of interleukin-6 (interferon-β2/B-cell stimulatory factor 2) in human fibroblasts is triggered by an increase in intracellular cyclic AMP. J Biol Chem 263:6177-6182. Zhu Q, Solomon S (1992). Isolation and mode of action of rabbit corticostatic (antiadrenocorticotropin) peptides. Endocrinology 130:1413-1423.

Journal of Dental Research, Vol. 77, No. 9, 1674-1683 (1998)
DOI: 10.1177/00220345980770090301
Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Complore Complore   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati   Add to Twitter Twitter    What's this?


This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Clin. Microbiol. Rev.Home page
N. B. Parahitiyawa, L. J. Jin, W. K. Leung, W. C. Yam, and L. P. Samaranayake
Microbiology of Odontogenic Bacteremia: beyond Endocarditis
Clin. Microbiol. Rev., January 1, 2009; 22(1): 46 - 64.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Infect. Immun.Home page
B. Henderson, P. Tabona, S. Poole, and S. P. Nair
Cloning and Expression of the Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans Thioredoxin (trx) Gene and Assessment of Cytokine Inhibitory Activity
Infect. Immun., January 1, 2001; 69(1): 154 - 158.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to Saved Citations
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Right arrow Request Reprints
Right arrow Add to My Marked Citations
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Right arrow Citing Articles via Scopus
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Henderson, B.
Right arrow Articles by Wilson, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Henderson, B.
Right arrow Articles by Wilson, M.
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Complore   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati   Add to Twitter  
What's this?